Augustine:
The problems faced by historians when interpreting Augustine’s works are twofold. First, his theology developed throughout his entire life and his writings are so numerous that it becomes difficult to know exactly what Augustine believed and when he believed it. This is one of the main reasons why it is necessary to be historically precise when dealing with Augustine, because it is impossible to see him as a static individual, but in fact develop theologically throughout his entire life. Secondly, due to a new emphasis within historical method our understanding of Augustine’s theology has changed in the last few generations. For many years, historians have treated Augustine primarily from internal convictions and have failed to understand external influence in the life and ideas of Augustine.[1] It is from this historical lens of internal reflection, that Augustine is primarily interpreted.[2] Although, this method is sound, it only describes half the story. The contemporary method in dealing with the life and ideas of Augustine is not to move from the inside to the outside, but to move from the outside to the inside.[3]
Some of these historians primarily deal with Augustine as the inventor of the “inner self” or as the first “autobiographer” whose inspiration was based upon internal reflection. It is from this historical lens that Augustine is primary interpreted. In other words, historians have treated Augustine as a man full of pre-modern, personal and religious convictions based upon the ever famous work: the Confessions, which represents a man stricken by conviction and encouraged by transformation throughout his entire life. It is argued that, Augustine’s struggle with his “inner self” was novel to his time period and the main driving force in his life, which lead him through many different religious paradigms and ultimately to his conversion to the Christian faith around 386 AD.
Augustine was born in Tagaste, Numidia, in 354 to a religiously Christian mother and Pagan father. At the age of seventeen, he was sent to Carthage in North Africa to be educated and it was at this point in his life that he began to study and read Cicero, Virgil, and many other philosophical writings. It was during this setting, when he became acquainted with and devoted to Manichan dualism, which was widespread geographically during his lifetime, but had centers in North Africa where he resided.[1] It was in 383, that Augustine traveled North to Italy where he settled in Milan and came under the influence of Saint Ambrose. It was from Ambrose’s “superior philosophy” that after some time Augustine was confirmed in his Christian faith by being baptized in 387. After his baptism, Augustine moved back to Carthage in North Africa and it was during this return that Augustine began to influence the Christian Church. First by becoming a presbyter and then eventually becoming the bishop at Hippo in 395. It was here in North Africa that Augustine remained until his death in 430.
Throughout Augustine’s Christian life, he wrote numerous works ranging from epistles, sermons and theological tracts.[2] It was in 410, that the Pelagian Controversy took full shape and Augustine responded by writing letters and theological tracts. It is from these letters along with the letters of Pelagius that we can historically construct the roots of this controversy and Pelagianism in general.[3]
Historically the Pelagian controversy can be understood within a broad and narrow historical context. The broad context is to place this controversy after the development of orthodoxy concerning the Trinity and the two natures of Christ, which was formulated into several catholic creeds. The language and nature of these creeds were not enough to handle all theological inquiry and, thus, somewhat naturally, developed into debates concerning the nature of humanity in general. In other words, the orthodox councils were not enough to handle questions “of human nature and its relation to the grace given in Christ.”[4] It was in 410 that the controversy of human nature reached full force and eventually the problem of human anthropology reached compromising agreement in 529 at the synod of Orange II.
[1] The founder of this religious movement went by the name of Mani whose theology was driven by early forms of Gnosticism and gained a strong holding in Persia. This group of followers had strong religions convictions of a cosmic war between the God of light and the God of darkness and this dualism was appealing to Augustine. Eventually, Mani’s influence moved throughout all of the Mediterranean.
[2] His most famous work, the Confessions was written around 400 in which he traces his sinful life, sexual adventures, his Manichian corruption, and his life in Carthage, Rome and Milan and his conversion to Christianity based upon his new understanding of his sin.
[3] Augustine’s major responses to Pelagius were On Merit and Forgiveness (De peccatorum meritis et remissione) written in 412; Concerning Man’s Perfections in Righteousness (De Perfectione justitiæ hominis) written in 415; On the Proceedings of Pelagius (De Gestis Pelagii) written in 417; The Grace of Christ and Original Sin (De Gratia Christi et de peccato originali) written in 418; and On Marriage and Concupiscence (De nuptiis et concupiscentia) written in 419. Spirit and Letter is also another major important primary source when considering Augustine’s understanding of Adam’s original condition.
[4] Jaroslav Pelikan, The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100-600), (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1971),278.
[3] J. O’Donnell is one scholar who sets the stage to this new method and states: “[t]he purposes of the modern student of Augustine may be best served if we come to the personal core of his life from the outside, working in.” See, James J. O’Donnell, The Cambridge Companion to Augustine, “Augustine: his time and lives” (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 10.
