The One and the Many: Devoted to the Universal and the Particulars

The evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin, established with the publication of “The Origin of Species,” in 1859, has been used, since its publication, to challenge the traditional Christian doctrines concerning God and Creation.  The theologian B. B. Warfield, professor of didactic and polemic theology at Princeton from 1887-1921, argued that there were other ways to interpret the evidence gained through scientific inquiry and evolution, which did not challenge but affirmed traditional Christian doctrines.  Warfield used evidence from evolution to describe how God worked within nature scientifically and the evolutionary evidence could be used to affirm doctrines within theology.  This type of usefulness of the evolutionary theory is seen in Warfield’s descriptions of the biblical concepts known to some as the Covenant of Works and the doctrine of federalism.

Warfield formed his understanding of federalism not only from Scripture and Westminster Confession of Faith, but also from the evidence gained from evolutionary philosophy and scientific inquiry.  This unity of the human race is essential for the doctrine of federalism and historical redemption because both require unity and a human race upon one common source, also known as mono-genetics.  With this unity, Warfield further established that all mankind, from the disobedience of the federal representative Adam, is now born with an innate sinful nature needful of redemption.  This federal representation of Adam, created the need and setting for Christ to become the federal representative for fallen man, in order to become a propitiatory sacrifice for God’s elect, grant salvation to those who have faith, and represent his people during the final judgment.  These doctrines were not innovative to Warfield but describe his connection to the traditions developed in the Westminster Confession of Faith, and to Princeton Seminary. 

Warfield taught, like the theological tradition he was part of, that Adam was the federal representative of all humankind and by Adam’s disobedience all humankind fell under the power of sin and misery.  The Westminster Confession in chapter 7:2 states, “The first covenant made with man was a covenant of works, wherein life was promised to Adam; and in him to his posterity, upon condition of perfect and personal obedience.”[1] This is known as the Covenant of Works and is a covenant between God and Adam.  The covenant promised eternal blessings for obedience, but it also established a penalty for breaking this covenant.  The penalty is human death and is affirmed in Genesis 2:17; it states, “…you must not eat from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, for when you eat of it you will surely die.”[2]  This concept is also described in the Westminster Confession in chapter 6:2-3:

            By this sin they fell from their original righteousness and communion with God, and         so became dead in sin, and wholly defiled in all the faculties and parts of soul and     body.  They being the root of all mankind, the guilt of this sin was imputed, and the           same death in sin and corrupted nature conveyed, to all their posterity descending          from them by ordinary generation.

The Covenant of Works was bilateral agreement made between God and Adam that established Adam as the representative head of all humanity; also known as federalism.  God promised Adam eternal blessings for his perfect obedience, but also established the penalty that if Adam broke this covenant, he would “surely die.” The Confession teaches that Adam, the first man, represented all humankind, and when he ate from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, he broke the bilateral agreement with God.  Adam being responsible for his disobedience suffered the penalty.  The outcome of this disobedience placed the human race under the power of sin and misery.  The human race after the fall, remained in the image of God but in the words of Louis Berkhof, after eating the forbidden fruit, “Adam became the bond-servant of sin.  That sin carried permanent pollution with it, and a pollution which, because of the solidarity of the human race, would affect not only Adam but all his descendents as well.”[3] This “pollution” was passed from Adam to his offspring, thus, with this establishment of the unity of the human race, “all have sinned and fallen short of the glory of God.”[4]

Warfield viewed the usefulness of evolutionary philosophy and utilized the (what he determined to be) evidence of his belief of federalism.  The main development within natural science during the life of Warfield was the theory of evolution developed by Charles Darwin and this theory advanced the “scientific view that man was part of the natural world.”[5] This theory gave “high-calibre ammunition for opponents of religion.  It could be used to disprove the doctrine of the Creation and Providential nature of history.”[6] It is clear that Warfield has a respect and understanding of evolution because Warfield wrote many essays about Darwin’s religious life, evolution, and scientific methods.  Warfield’s understanding and usefulness of evolution was based upon his understanding of objective science.  Warfield was willing to incorporate scientific knowledge into his theology and ultimately the evidence from evolution was formulated into his description and defense of the Covenant of Works. 

            Warfield develops in his essay, “On the Antiquity and Unity of the Human Race,” that the questions concerning the “method of divine procedure in creating man,” became heightened during the arrival of Charles Darwin’s “Origin of Species” in 1859.[7] Along with this concern about God’s methods in creating man, were questions regarding the antiquity of humankind and Creation.  To Warfield, these latter questions have no “theological significance,”[8] because the Bible does not address the issue and the chronological scheme of counting generation records in order to gain the antiquity of man is “pure illusion.”[9] Warfield concludes, that because the Bible is silent regarding how God created humankind and the actual time length in creation, theologians, whose source of knowledge comes from revelation, must be silent regarding the antiquity of man and how God created nature.  The theologian only receives from revelation that God created not his methods of creation.  Thus, in the realm of theology, according to Warfield, there is no possible way to know when or how God created the heavens and the earth; he just affirms that God created.

            It is from this point that Warfield moves from questions concerning the antiquity of mankind to important theological questions concerning the unity of the human race.  This unity of the human race, according to Warfield, is not only proved to be true from Scripture but also from evolutionary philosophy.  Warfield definition of evolution is that the “entire development of animate forms had been the product of selection, by the pressure of the environment, of infinitesimal variations in an almost infinite series of successive generations…that chance plus time are the true causes which account for the whole body of differentiated forms….”[10] This scientific formula of unlimited time promoted by Darwin gives evolution the ability to conclude change in geology, species, and human development by an unrestricted slow process.  To Warfield, this unrestricted slow process is an assumption and is not logical, because “what is needed to account for it [change] is not time in any extension, but an adequate cause.”[11] From this, we see Warfield departing from atheistic and materialistic Darwinism, in order to embrace evolutionary philosophy that understands God as being the first cause of change and formation.[12]

            Both David Livingstone and Mark Noll argue that Warfield made a connection between creation and evolutionary science, because of his view of organic inspiration.  They describe Warfield’s view of organic inspiration as a “joint product of divine and human activities…working harmoniously together…” in order to create God’s special revelation. [13]  It is here in the doctrine of organic inspiration where God uses man’s personality, style, culture, and language to create the Scripture for humankind.  Livingstone and Noll argue that because Warfield was able to make this connection between God and man working together in organic inspiration, Warfield was then able to see evolutionary philosophy and Divine creation in the same way.  Thus, Warfield could see evolution as “both natural forces and divine action,”[14] working “harmoniously” together.  I cordially disagree to this representation of Warfield in two respects, because it does not show the reasons why Warfield made this connection between natural science and divine action; it just makes an interesting connection.  It also does not conclude logically or historically that because of his views of organic inspiration, being a balance of nature (humankind) and Divine guidance then this alone allowed Warfield to see evolution as natural force working “harmoniously” together with God.  This connection between evolutionary philosophy and divine creation was made possible because of Warfield’s theological method, which incorporates scientific objective knowledge within theology.  Warfield could also make this connection between natural forces working with divine action because of his specific definition of evolution and its evidence; not from an interesting connection to organic inspiration.   

            Warfield’s theological method allowed him to use evidence from evolution to affirm the biblical account concerning the unity of man and this is one of the ways we see Warfield enthusiastic about evolution. [15] This enthusiasm is seen in his arguments concerning the unity of the human race and the debates between mono-genetics and poly-genetics.  This genetics debate runs at the center of human descent and reaches not only religious levels of concern but also social and political levels.[16]

            The main concern here is that some contemporary creationists condemn all forms of evolution and do not realize that Warfield’s evolutionary philosophy, understood properly, gives evidence for the unity of the human race, thus establishing federalism and the Covenant of Works.  Livingstone argues that some evangelicals and creationists use Warfield to affirm the doctrine of inspiration and inerrancy of Scripture and, at the same time, use Warfield’s views of inspiration to fight against evolution.[17] [18] In the opinion of Livingstone, Warfield’s arguments concerning inerrancy are being used by creationists to fight against evolution, because they assume that all forms of evolution affirm social Darwinism and all forms of evolution develop into racial pride inspiring undesirable events like eugenics and Nazi Germany.  This is pure ignorance upon the use of Warfield, because Warfield did not see a contradiction between the biblical Creation account and forms of evolution.  To Warfield, the evidence gained from evolutionary philosophy does not affirm poly-genetics or social Darwinism.  Warfield argued that it was racial pride alone that established poly-genetics not the evidence of evolution. 

            Despite contemporary confusion, Warfield’s understanding of evolutionary philosophy can be used to affirm the Biblical account in Genesis.[19] Warfield reaches this conclusion about the unity of the human race not exclusively from evolutionary philosophy, but from a variety of disciplines within science.  Warfield wrote concerning this unity, that “[t]his evidence is drawn almost equally from every department of human manifestation [evolution], physiological, psychological, philological and even historical.”[20] With this evidence from science and evolutionary philosophy, Warfield is able to show from science the truthfulness of the biblical doctrines concerning federalism and then describe the importance of Covenant of Works.  Warfield says, “Throughout the Scriptures therefore all mankind is treated as, from the divine point of view, a unit, and shares not only in a common nature but in a common sinfulness, not only in a common need but in a common redemption.”[21] With this establishment of a common sinfulness from Adam’s disobedience proven true from both science and scripture, all of the human race is needful of a common redemption.  Warfield said, “It is only because all men were in Adam as their first head that all men share in Adam’s sin and with his sin in his punishment.”[22]  It is here that we find Warfield’s description of federalism and that all humankind are needful of redemption because of Adam’s covenant breaking with God.  Warfield showed that because of the fall of Adam, as the federal representation of humankind, all humans are under the curse of the law.  This federalism of Adam then passes our fallen nature to every generation thus creating the need for redemption. 

            Warfield used evolutionary philosophy to support federalism, because the evidence affirmed the biblical doctrine concerning the unity of the human race.  Thus, affirming human depravity was caused by a broken covenant between God and Adam.  From this point, Warfield said, “The unity of the human race is there fore made in Scripture…[and becomes] the bases also of the entire scheme of restoration devised by the divine love for the salvation of a lost race.”[23]  With Warfield’s description of the Covenant of Works, he was then able to show that Christ fulfilled this covenant for humankind by becoming a human, living a human life, fulfilling the works of the law and becoming to propitiation for our sins.  Warfield uses the back drop of the law to establish the fulfillment of Christ.  This is also affirmed in the Westminster Confession of Faith and in chapter 7:3 it states, “Man, by his fall, having made himself incapable of life by the covenant, the Lord was pleased to make a second, commonly called the covenant of grace….”[24]